Combining Nurse Leader With Advocacy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Combining Nurse Leader With Advocacy - Essay Example Moreover, the nursing environment holds me accountable for all nursing actions and outcomes thus motivating me to set high expectations and seek positive patient results. I have high expectations for my performance and practice. I possess great leadership and communication skills that allow me to help others in resolving disputes and dilemmas in this field. I also follow the ethical guidelines adopted in the practice. However, I have a weakness since I am not a member of a professional nursing organization thus missing a chance for professional development. I am a poor time manager and always talk frankly without considering other people’s views. With respect to career planning, I manifest competent experience in understanding the job description and requirements of nurse managers. I have been providing nursing care to patients and became a role model to other nurses. As such, I have taught some nurse practitioners, offered career advised, and addressed various nursing issues. My pursuit of further education in this field prepares me for a success professional career in the future. I have fundamental technical knowledge in nursing and possess teamwork and communication skills that prepare me for a bright career. My personal characteristics like robustness, ethical behavior, and ability to perform under immense pressure guides my career. However, I have a weakness in low work experience and poor job-hunting skills that may jeopardize my quest to practice nursing in the future. On personal journey disciplines, I manifest expert practice that helps me to develop my capacity as a leader. I have immense knowledge and leadership skills to manage nursing teams that enhance shared leadership in nursing practice. In addition, I manifest strength in solving problems and reflecting on personal decisions that relate to my practice. As such, I use techniques of â€Å"action learning† to influence my nurse teams in making decisions and solving disputes thus

Fast Food Nation Essay Example for Free

Fast Food Nation Essay Summary: All Americans effect the huge growth of fast food but adolescents play even more of a vital role in than the average consumer. Not only do teenagers consume fast food, but they work for it and steal from it because they are attracted to it the most. The fast food industry provides the easiest way for young people to get started and continue to succeed in our Fast Food Nation. Our country loves fast food, there is speedy service with cheap tasty food in over one million restaurants world wide. Though we all love it, we do not like the stories behind it. In 2004, Americans spent over 110 billion dollars on fast food, thats more than higher education, computers, computer software and new cars combined (Scholosser, 3). Teenagers provide a huge role in the fast food industry. Teenagers work at these restaurants, eat at these restaurants, are objects of advertisements by these restaurants and steal from these restaurants more than any other age group. Ever since the age of three more than 75 percent of American children can recognize the face of Ronald McDonald. Since our nation is currently being raised around fast food it is only inevitable that as children grow, they only become more of a part of it everyday. The average American child begins to work around the age of 16 doing low wage low labor jobs. At anytime a teenager can walk into any fast food restaurant and apply for a job. Fast food restaurants prefer to employ teenagers because they are easily trained, less expensive to tend to than adults and are easier to control. Also since most teenagers still live at home they can afford to work for wages too low to even support an adult. No other industry in the United States had a workforce so dominated by adolescents. About two-thirds of the nations fast food workers are under the age of twenty (Scholosser, 68). Working in McDonalds is not difficult, but just tedious and long. Since most fast food restaurants are run my machines, it is up to these 17 year-old employs to push buttons and say commands. All Burger King wants is for things to get done faster, not how much effort is put into work, so teenagers feel working at Taco Bell or KFC wont be as difficult as it will a strain. Any teenager working behind the counter at any fast food restaurant is given less respect than animals at the pet store. ... she hates the job and is desperate to quit. Working at the counter she has to deal with rude remarks and complaints. She is often yelled at by strangers angry that their foods taking to long or that something is wrong with their order. One elderly woman threw a hamburger at her because there was too much mustard on it (Scholosser, 81). Though rudeness is a downside to a fast food job, there are perks for kids who do not need a lot. Many of the 200 dollar a week salary is used for teenage spending; clothes, nights out, cars and other desirable things. Teenagers run and continue the fast food work force every day, not because they have to but because its the best option available to them. Though we may not like the way the food is cooked or served; the way it tastes is still great. McDonalds makes a huge profit off of everything; soda fries and sandwiches all profit so largely, and teenagers are one of the most popular customers. A medium soda in McDonalds is $1. 29, it cost McDonalds $4. 25 per gallon of soda syrup, only about 9 cents worth of syrup is used in a medium drink, giving McDonalds almost a 95% profit. Soda consumption among teenagers has doubled within the past 20 years, reaching an average of twelve ounces of soda a day per child. (Scholosser, 54). With French fries McDonalds buy them frozen for 30 cents a pound, then sells them reheated in oil for 6 dollars a pound, pure profit pulled from the hands of teenagers. McDonalds makes billions upon billions of dollars annually by selling things for such a low price but really making the largest profit possible. Recently, fast food restaurants have become more attractive to armed robbers than a clothing store or gas station. Since fast food industries do almost all of their business in cash, others rely on credit card transactions. Robbery in fast food chains is not uncommon at all, even when most of it happens by their own employees, underage teenagers who are desperate for money. Though most of these robberies occur early in the morning or late at night when few people are working. The typical employee stole about $218 a year and according to industry studies, about two thirds of the robberies at fast food restaurants involve current or former employees. (Scholosser, 84). Employees have low pay, high turnover and know the restaurant, why not steal? McDonalds is already a billion dollar industry, many of the people think, its not going to hurt their business, they wont even notice. However these robberies have led to deaths and injuries, and make teenagers realize what horrible conditions they are working in. All Americans effect the huge growth of fast food but adolescents play even more of a vital role in than the average consumer. Not only do teenagers consume fast food, but they work for it and steal from it because they are attracted to it the most. The fast food industry provides the easiest way for young people to get started and continue to succeed in our Fast Food Nation.

Study On Faith Seeking Understanding Theology

Study On Faith Seeking Understanding Theology Daniel L. Migliore in the book he authored, the 2nd edition of Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology, made an effort to strengthen the fullness of Trinitarian faith and its relational understanding of God, creation, reconciliation, and consummation. It is an expanded and updated version to the earlier edition which presents a foreword to Christian Theology that is both critically respectful of the classical theological tradition and critically open to the new voices and emphases of recent theology. As an introduction to Christian Theology, Faith Seeking Understanding contains fundamentally theological themes which are catholic in nature and critical of the beliefs and way of living of the faith community. Its basic coverage makes it suitable to first readers in theology and its criticism from the liberal theologians point of view recommends reflection to renew and rethink the beliefs and practices of traditionalists or of those who observe the beliefs and practices they had but have totally forgotten the core message of what they believe and practice. In line with the spirit of optimism, humility of heart and open-mindedness, the criticisms employed, having their respective criterion, entails a challenge to rediscover the journey of faith. Upon reviewing it, one was reminded that a believer in the true sense is a learner who constantly looks for the truth and searches for the way. As the impetus of various theological movements became obvious, the first edition of the Faith Seeking Understanding was born in the immediate context of the mainline Protestant church in North America. The authors reflections on the inseparability of faith and practice were formed in a small Presbyterian congregation in Pennsylvania. Unsatisfied with its inadequacy in the present human situation of widespread anxiety and insecurity, Migliore brought to existence these updated and expanded edition. This was done to respond to the need of the church especially in times of crisis where clarity of conviction and purpose is certainly necessary in this time of uncertainty. In order to obtain a better understanding of the values it points, one needs to notice where the author with his reflections is coming from. Three methods were utilized and influenced its contents in one way or another. First, theology was presented in a way that highlighted the Word of God posing questions to man. Second, theological questions were formulated by an analysis of the human situation in a given period as seen in its philosophy, literature, art, science, and social institutions. Lastly, praxis approach of liberation theology is apparent. Faith Seeking Understanding discusses the importance and purpose of the pursuit of faith for understanding. Here and now, faith sees only dimly and the questions of faith abound. There are events that will challenge our beliefs and practices which may, at the same time, open us up to a praxis that may overcome evil and suffering, violence and ambiguity. Faith seeks understanding not for the sake of obtaining knowledge but seeks wisdom that will illumine life and practice of Christian virtues. It is not speculative knowledge! Quoting various philosophers, theory without practice is empty, practice without theory is blind. When faith is rethought and understanding of it is sought, its purpose and meaning gains clarity. The author provides sources from which believers may claim to have knowledge of God in relation to human condition. It does not confirm what we already know about Him rather utterly surprises and disturbs a believer. God reveals himself but remains hidden. As Tersteegen states, A God comprehended is no God. Understanding of faith does not mean to know all the known and the unknown but the application of what was understood in service of God and his creation. Although man cant fully understand God or faith, the seeking is not a waste but leads one to become a better person with better understanding and better witnessing with an open mind and a humble heart. The Triune God revealed and celebrated in Jesus Christ by the power of the Holy Spirit attested by the Sacred Scripture viewed through the eyes of those who are suffering and weak connects the main points. It tells the reader that the understanding of God is always an initiative of God! Mans is a response. The tradition of faith is interpreted from its center, in Jesus Christ, allowing Him to become a transforming power in human life. Faith seeks development not in theory but through personal encounter and witnessing of God sought through faith. This lays down the liberating love that creates a new community. In this time of crisis, in a world characterized by violence, nuclear threats, ecological crisis, spiritual confusion and what not, a right understanding of the confession of faith in God the Creator is perhaps more important today than ever before. A Christian faith that seeks understanding clearly emboldens, sharpens and makes patent its identity respecting the character of other religions. Understanding may be achieved through attentive and trustful reading and hearing of the witness of scripture in company with other members of the people of God. Faith Seeking Understanding truly captured its purpose of reexamining faith in order to appreciate it fully and become an active and responsible believer who consciously recognize our identity as we freely respond in faith and in joyful hope of discovering the truth of what was handed to us and what was hidden from us. This will help us posses a new perspective and a new criterion of understanding. There is so much to discover in faith thus the use of intelligence is essential to avoid reducing faith into a euphoric feeling. There is lot of things to learn about the Triune God thus we are in need to intensify our witnessing of charity. As Pope Benedict XVI states in his Apostolic Letter Porta Fidei, Faith is choosing to stand with the Lord so as to live with him, this standing with Him points towards and understanding of the reasons for believing. Faiths real prize is not realized until its worth is examined. Faith Seeking Understanding by Daniel L. Migliore proves to be a timely response to the signs of the time as the world encounters crisis of ambiguity and precariousness. The honesty of the author is to be commended for there is no pretension as he acknowledges that some topics remain broken and incomplete. However, it is also just to subject the criticism of the author into criticism for he is also doomed to human condition. In addition, Catholic readers should remember the background of the author to reconsider the apparent biases towards Catholicism.

Thomas Hardy Essay -- essays research papers

Thomas Hardy Thomas Hardy, written by Trevor Johnson, is the detailed journey through the life of one of England’s greatest writers. This biography describes some of the major details of his life such as his family, his education, and his major works. Thomas Hardy was born in 1840 at the Village of Upper Bochampton. He was the child of a country stonemason. Hardy was the third Thomas of his family. His mother’s maiden name was Jemima Hand and she and her husband led Hardy to have an unusually happy childhood. His early years were a seed-bed to his later creative development. His mother knew what real poverty was when she was young because she lost her father. Hardy said ‘ she read every book she could lay her hands on’ and she grew up to be a woman of ability, judgment, and ‘ an energy that might have carried her to incalculable issues!’ Many thought she was the dominant influence in Hardy’s life but his father was a man of character also. Even though he didn’t ‘ possess the art of enriching himself by business,’ he was a fine craftsman, and a lover of music. Hardy’s family was never poor and he summed up his happy childhood in a tiny lyric: She sat here in her chair, smiling into the fire; He who played stood there, 2 Bowing it higher and higher. Childlike, I danced in a dream; Blessings emblazoned that day; Everything glowed with a gleam; Yet we were looking away! As a young child, Hardy mastered the violin learning over 100 tunes. He also sang in the Stansford Church every Sunday. It seems to be that Hardy and his parents had a good relationship. In 1867 Hardy met Tryphena Sparks who was 16 and a daughter to a family related to his. She was intelligent and made her living as a teacher. She bore a child in 1868 and Hardy fell deeply in love with her. But in 1872 she broke his heart by returning her engagement ring. She then remarried and had two more children before dying in 1890. Tryphena had a great influence on his writing. On March 7, 1870 Hardy took an architectural trip to a church named St. Juliot. He stayed at the rectory and met the rector’s sister-in-law, Emma Lavinia Gifford. She was younger and attractive, and they walked hand in hand through the countryside. They fell half in love and Hardy made many trips back to St. Juliot. In 1874 they were married and proceeded to wander about Europe until they settled in S... ... as the greatest English author of his time. He received an Order of Merit and many doctorates from universities. His achievements stemmed further from writing by receiving two architectural awards. He was even popular enough to get pestered by nosy neighbors. His relationships with other writers were few but important. When he was with Florence Ellen Dugdale, his home was a pilgrimage to young writers like, Edmund Blunden, Robert Graves, T.E. Lawrence,, and Siegfried Sassoon. But perhaps the greatest honor he ever received was when he died. His ashes were scattered in Poet’s Corner in Westminster Abby next to the great Charles Dickens. Thomas Hardy by Trevor Johnson is a well written, thorough, and easy to follow biography. Leaving out only ancestry and condemnation, it provided a lot of information on major topics. This book is a good description of Hardy and it is a good research reference. By reading this and The Mayor of Casterbridge it is easy to tie together Hardy’s life and Michael Henchard’s. It is clear that Hardy knew of lost love and experienced the surrounding hardships. Thomas Hardy is a good writer and by Trevor Johnson’s description, he led a good life.

Changing Behaviors by Changing the Classroom Environment Essay

Many teachers face disruptive behavior in their classrooms. They are left with the question; how can they identify and change the problem areas in the classroom environment in order to change the behavior? By collecting data on students’ engagement during instruction, disruptive behavior, and teacher observations, teachers can identify which physical aspects of their classrooms need to be improved. One of the challenges teachers face is disruptive behavior in their classrooms. A survey conducted in 2004 showed that 75% of the teachers noted that they would spend more time teaching effectively if they had less disruptive behavior in their classrooms (public agenda, 2004). Examples of these disruptive behaviors include, speaking without permission and getting out of the seat. Another challenge for the teachers is to find classroom management strategies that are proactive, preventative and relatively easy to implement and which provide minimal disruption to the classroom. There are different steps to changing the environment of a classroom. The first step is to observe: Finding out things like what types of behaviors occur in your classroom, when are most disruptive behaviors occurring, the time of day and under which type of circumstances? Where is disruptive behavior occurring? Are students able to work at desks without distractions? Are students able to work in group areas without distractions from the surrounding environment? The second step is to modify: This entails providing areas for personal space (Hood-Smith & Leffingwell, 1983, Visser, 2001), changing or decreasing placement of stimulating visuals, making clear pathways between students and high trafficked areas (Visser, 2001; Weinstein, 1979), addressing acoustic quality in the classroom by eliminating objects that produce background noise, modify classroom climate by adjusting lighting, air flow, and temperature. The last step is following up: these include questions like, are you using the modifications correctly? Are the modifications being used consistently? Do any modifications need rearranging, changing, or removal? Do you need to implement additional modifications? Investigations have been done by researchers on the relationship between the classroom environment, student behavior and academic engagement (Hood-Smith & Leffingwell, 1983; Visser, 2001). A well organized classroom permits more positive interactions between teachers and children, reducing the probability that challenging behaviors will occur (Martella, Nelson & Marchand-Martella, 2003). In addition, modifying the classroom environment may serve as a direct intervention for children who demonstrate ongoing disruptive behavior (Conroy, Davis, Fox & Brown, 2002). Although the well designed classroom has proven benefits, there is little research on the impact environmental modifications have on behavior and learning (Guardino,2009; Schilling &Schwartz, 2004). Modifications of the environment are preventatives, whole class approach that may decrease chronic behavior problems, prevent behavior problems for students who are at risk, and allow children with minimal behavior to access learning without interruption. Although environmental modifications are an essential part of classroom management, many teachers are not aware of the process of implementing them. A case study was done on Ms. Thompson a fourth grade teacher and her class. The students exhibited high levels of disruptive behavior. During the baseline phase, data on the overall classroom academic engagement and disruptive behavior was collected. Ms. Thompson helped in defining academic as purposeful attention such as raising a hand or answering a question and disruptive behavior as speaking without permission, getting out of seat or non compliance to the teachers directions. During the two weeks of data collection academic engagement and disruptive behavior was measured. Ms. Thompson directed a mini-reading lesson, after which students worked independently. The observation sessions were 15 minutes long; during this period some instances were noted where one or more students were not academically engaged during any 15 seconds interval. After the observation, discussions on how to improve the environment were done with Ms. Thompson; for example, seating arrangement, creating group space etc. These changes were put in place and beginning the following Monday data was collected for 4 weeks. Ms. Thompson also filled a questionnaire regarding her perception of the effectiveness of changing the classroom environment to improve student behavior. After the classroom was modified academic engagement increased and stayed at or 45% as compared to the previous 3%. Before the intervention disruptive behavior occurred almost 90% of the time but after it reduced but was inconsistent during the final observations. Both the questionnaire and a follow up interview relayed Ms Thompsons’ satisfaction with modifying her classroom environment to improve student behaviors. With the results gotten from the case study, it is with no doubt clear that modifications to the classroom environment increased academic engagement and decreased disruptive behavior. References Martella. R. C. Nelson, J. R. , & Marchand-Martella. N. E. (2003). Managing disruptive Behaviors in the school. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Schilling. D. L, & Schwartz, I. S. (2004). Alternative seating for young children with autism spectrum disorder: Effects on classroom behavior. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 423-452. Visser, J. (2001). Aspects of physical provision for pupils with emotional and behavioral difficulties. Support for Learning. I6 (2). 64-66 Weinstein, C. S. (1979). The physical environment of the school: A review of research. Review of Educational Research. 49, 577-610. Conroy, M. A. , Davis, C. A. , Fox, J. J.. & Brown, W. H. [2002). Functional assessment of behavior and effective supports young children with challenging Behaviors. Assessment for Effective intervention, 2 [4j, 35-47. Guardino, C. (2009). Modifying the environment to improve student behaviors: A closer look at classrooms with students who have a hearing bss. Manuscript in preparation. Hood-Smith, N. E. , & Leffingwell, R. J. (1983). The impact of physical space alternation on disruptive classroom behavior: A case study. Education. ?04. 224-231. Public Agenda. (2004). Teaching in Wrnipted: Do discipline policies in today’s public schools foster the common good? New York, NY: Author. Retrieved fromhttp://commongood. org/assets/attachments/ 22. pdf.

Book Design in Self Publishing - Breaking New Ground

Book Design in Self Publishing - Breaking New Ground Book Design in Self-Publishing: Breaking New Ground Self-publishing is often about pushing the boundaries, and this is what today’s interview is all about. The Perfect Capital by Karen Healey Wallace isn’t just any self-published book, it is one whose design is ingrained into its very being, both through the story it tells and through its sophisticated layout and typography.The Perfect Capital has truly broken new ground and was nominated for Best British Book Award Shortlist and Best Editorial Design Award Shortlist 2014. We   spoke to Karen about the inspiration behind the book, it’s design, and typographer Eric Gill’s role in the story. For those who love video, just hit play. If you prefer images with an edited text, feast your eyes on the text and words below.â€Å"Book production in the hands of writers should create books nobody’s done, nobody’s even dreamed of. Because they come unimpeded out of your imagination.† Karen Healey WallaceWelcome Karen it’s great to have you with us, to start with, can you please tell me a little more about you concept of book creation in the hands of authorsHi! Well it does seem illogical to me that books in the hands of authors aren’t the best books on the market. There was an age when ‘vanity publishing’, as they called it then, was the high-end of the market and the idea that an author can see their book through exactly the way they wanted it, should produce the most beautiful books. So it seems to me a strange anomaly that a lot of self-publishing now seems rubbish - lots of Print-On-Demand books, often with typographical errors etc - but it doesn’t need to be that way and it shouldn’t be! So I hope that The Perfect Capital is a pathfinder for more books like this.Please show us what the book looks like! It’s quite an object†¦Well to start with, here’s the spine - the spine title has replaced the collator’s marks which was probably one of the bravest thin gs I did because you can’t actually see the title at all. I made the executive decision that people don’t make book choices from 15 feet away, they usually walk right up to it and see whether they want it.A brief background around how this thing came into being: The Perfect Capital is a piece of literary fiction. It’s about one woman’s quest to find the perfect letter form of the typographer Eric Gill (1882-1940). So the story weaves in that character’s artistic discoveries, which looks at Eric Gill’s real-life inscriptions in London. This is woven into the other side of the story line where an old-fashioned character (Maud) falls in with the most imperfect man (Edward). The fiction and narrative is based in Gill himself: I took the perfect artist and put him in one character; and then I put the other part of Gill as a highly imperfect man into another character.That was originally where I was going to leave it†¦ What I didn’t re alise was going to happen was put perfectly by Beatrice Ward who said that â€Å"Either the whole man comes up, or else the tweezers slip†. It was everything or nothing. I absolutely experienced that in my relationship, so I found myself unable to pick and choose. I was writing the design brief for the book and the book when I knew I was going to be self-publishing it, the book literally appeared fully formed in my head. Whilst I did need to find a designer and a printer, I actually never needed to submit that brief because I knew exactly what I wanted, I just needed to find the people to make it happen.Talk us through the thought process of making the bookThe nice thing is that although I ended up making something special, I never decided to make something special: I didn’t sit down and say â€Å"this is going to be a really beautiful book†. My only decision was to make a book that was absolutely right for my story. The perfect book in my mind isn’t jus t an advertisement for the story that’s inside it, it actually tells the story from the moment you pick it up.Because I didn’t know what I was doing, I was in the lovely position to make the book that I chose to make, rather than make the book that convention or machinery would allow. It’s having the idea and saying â€Å"how can I make this work† rather than knowing how things work and limiting your ideas to that. I knew that I wanted a type-only book that fit with my story. The book is of course in paper and not in stone, but it has a feeling of stone. It’s very simple and feels like an art book and obviously the story is about an artist inside.service@reedsy.com to claim your discount!

Appellate Jurisdiction in the US Court System

Appellate Jurisdiction in the US Court System The term â€Å"appellate jurisdiction† refers to the authority of a court to hear appeals to cases decided by lower courts. Courts that have such authority are called â€Å"appellate courts.† The appellate courts have the power to reverse or modify the lower court’s decision. Key Takeaways: Appellate Jurisdiction Appellate jurisdiction is the authority of a court to hear and decide appeals to decisions made by lower courts.In the United States federal court system, cases originally decided in the district courts can be appealed only to the circuit courts of appeals, while decisions of the circuit courts can be appealed only to the U.S. Supreme Court. Decisions of the Supreme Court cannot be further appealed.The right to appeal is not guaranteed by the Constitution. Instead, the appellant must â€Å"show cause† by convincing the appeals court that the trial court had failed to properly apply the laws involved or to follow proper legal procedures.The standards by which an appeals court decides the correctness of a lower court’s decision is base whether the appeal was based on a question of substantive facts of the case or on an incorrect or improper application of the legal process resulting in the denial of due process of law.   While the right to appeal is not bestowed by any law or the Constitution, it is generally considered to be embodied in general tenets of law prescribed by the English Magna Carta of 1215. Under the federal hierarchical dual court system of the United States, the circuit courts have appellate jurisdiction over cases decided by the district courts, and the U.S. Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction over the decisions of the circuit courts. The Constitution gives Congress the authority to create courts under the Supreme Court and to determine the number and location of courts with appellate jurisdiction. Currently, the lower federal court system is made up of 12 geographically located regional circuit courts of appeal which have appellate jurisdiction over 94 district trial courts. The 12 appellate courts also have jurisdiction over specialized cases in involving the federal government agencies, and cases dealing with patent law. In the 12 appellate courts, appeals are heard and decided by three-judge panels. Juries are not used in the appeals courts. Typically, cases decided by the 94 district courts can be appealed to a circuit court of appeals and decisions for the circuit courts can be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. The Supreme Court also has â€Å"original jurisdiction† to hear certain types of cases that may be allowed to bypass the often lengthy standard appellate process. From about 25% to 33% of all appeals heard by federal appellate courts involve criminal convictions. The Right to Appeal Must be Proven Unlike other legal rights guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution, the right to appeal is not absolute. Instead, the party asking for the appeal called the â€Å"appellant,† must convince the appellate jurisdiction court that the lower court had incorrectly applied a law or failed to follow proper legal procedures during the trial. The process of proving such errors by the lower courts is called â€Å"showing cause.† The appellate jurisdiction courts will not consider an appeal unless cause has been shown. In other words, the right to appeal is not required as part of â€Å"due process of law.† While always applied in practice, the requirement to show cause in order to gain the right to appeal was confirmed by the Supreme Court in 1894. In deciding the case of McKane v. Durston, the justices wrote, â€Å"An appeal from a judgment of conviction is not a matter of absolute right, independently of constitutional or statutory provisions allowing such appeal.† The court continued, â€Å"A review by an appellate court of the final judgment in a criminal case, however, grave the offense of which the accused is convicted, was not at common law and is not now a necessary element of due process of law. It is wholly within the discretion of the state to allow or not to allow such a review.† The way in which appeals are dealt with, including determining whether or not the appellant has proven the right to appeal, can vary from state to state. Standards by Which Appeals are Judged The standards by which a court of appeals judges the validity of a lower court’s decision depends on whether the appeal was based on a question of facts presented during the trial or on an incorrect application or interpretation of a law by the lower court. In judging appeals based on facts presented at trial, the court of appeals judges must weigh the facts of the case based on their own firsthand review of the evidence and observation of witness testimony. Unless a clear error in the way the facts of the case were represented to or interpreted by the lower court can be found, the appeals court will generally deny the appeal and allow the decision of the lower court to stand. When reviewing issues of law, the court of appeals may reverse or modify the lower court’s decision if the judges find the lower court wrongly applied or misinterpreted the law or laws involved in the case. The court of appeals may also review â€Å"discretionary† decisions or rulings made by the lower court judge during the trial. For example, the appeals court might find that the trial judge improperly disallowed evidence that should have been seen by the jury or failed to grant a new trial due to circumstances that arose during the trial. Sources and Further Reference â€Å"Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure.† Legal Information Institute. Cornell Law SchoolAbout U.S. Federal Courts.† United States Courts

Industrialisation in Post-Civil War America

Industrialisation in Post-Civil War America Free Online Research Papers Industrialization can be briefly defined as: The development of social organizations, generally in nation-states in which large manufacturing enterprises loom large and in which adjunctive legal institutions supporting laissez-faire philosophies of market relationships and providential public and private services grow with tandem. Therefore, industrialization should be discussed in the context of economic, social and political factors: conditions in which technological innovations have their full impact on the transformation of economy. It is impossible to elucidate industrialization in Post-Civil War America and not to involve all this vast number of factors that influenced its development. If one would try to define it solely in the context of technological discoveries, it would provide a very superficial explanation; neglecting other factors would eventually lead to the dangerous path of telling historical untruth. The truth is that industrialization is much more complex, although it could not happen in this form without its technical inventions that made the 21st century world possible. For example, the creation of industrial society would not take this shape without significant discoveries of new managerial practices that set the basis of modern capitalistic society: the prevailing economic system of nowa days, of which America is the most superb example. There is no doubt that this topic would deserve discourse of a much larger extent. Concerning the restrictions of space that has been given to me, I will not be able to present a wider context of the Post-Civil War industrialization. I find it most important to present its frame and historical background, its most important characteristics and its legacies. I will also try to include the most prominent cultural and social changes, focusing on the ones I find to be the most essential. Industrialization, Incorporation and Development of Capitalist Economy In the Post Civil-War era, the United States experienced most rapid and intensive industrialization and urbanization. The factor of war should not be excluded: the war needs significantly stimulated countrys economy, especially iron and steel industry that continued to flourish after its end. The development of technology combined with vast raw material deposits (at the beginning, coal, then iron and oil) contributed to the growing power of the nation, completely transforming its economy, including the economic system itself. Discussing the backgrounds of Industrialization process, it is important to mention that American Post-Civil War industrialization, considering roughly period between years 1865 and 1900, took place in a â€Å"laissez-faire† capitalist environment. It is not that this environment was artificially created, newly developed capitalist relations created such conditions. In this early phase of its development, economic relationships were not yet well developed, which made enough room for unscrupulous practice and exploitation of labor. People who had benefit from such conditions advocated the policy of economic liberalism, or â€Å"laissez-faire economics†. In French Laissez-faire means leave to do, and the Scottish economist Adam Smith is to be given credit for popularizing the term in the 19th century. His famous work The Wealth of Nations (1776) had great influence in 19th century economic thought. Adam Smith explains that the best way in which the economic growth can be stimulated is to let the individual initiative to operate freely and pursue its self-interest, and that the personal progress of that initiative will lead to the benefit of society as a whole. Opposing the principle of economic interventionism laissez-faire doctrine advocates the minimum necessary interference of government. Economic laws of free competition should act as an â€Å"invisible hand† that will maintain a certain order in economy. The personal greed element that Adam Smith mentions in his philosophy had immense power in the development of industrial economy in Post Civil-War America. Entrepreneurs’ greed did lead to economic growth; however, it did not lead to the benefit of whole society but to the progress of a few. During the Post Civil-War industrialization period in United States, a small number of corporate giants came to dominate whole industries, took over the market and destroyed many smaller businesses that were swallowed by their great competitors. Avoidance of governmental regulations (which was always advocated by unscrupulous industrialists) led to exploitation of labor and turned out to be completely inadequate in solving numerous social problems. The most important social change that this period has brought was undoubtedly the rise of a new, numerous working class, in contrast to a small-numbered class of capitalists, and the increased social gap of this newly created industrial society. The development of railroads was of extreme importance from the earliest period of industrialization. They stimulated the settlement of the West, the trade, and railroad companies influenced the economy by inventing new managerial practices and pioneering the consolidations of smaller businesses. Thus, the incorporation of America came along with its industrialization and the development of the capitalist economic system. Railroads and New Managerial Practices Hoping to encourage settlement and exploitation of resources in the West the U.S. government promised railroad companies 20 square miles on the both sides of the tracks for every mile of it laid. The result was that, between 1965 and 1900, railroad lines increased from 35,000 to 192,000 miles, which was more than the whole Europe had at the time. Only four years after the Civil War, with the meeting of Union Pacific and Central Pacific railway at Promontory Point in Utah, the first Transcontinental Railroad was completed. It united the country physically, opened vast lands for cultivation and for investors vast raw materials deposits such as coal, oil and iron. As railroad companies had their interest in creating future customers for their services, they endeavored to settle the areas where their tracks were laid. Promontory Point, Utah. May 10, 1869 On May 10th, 1869 New York Times wrote: The inhabitants of the Atlantic seaboard and the dwellers on the Pacific slopes are henceforth emphatically one people†¦ The new highway thus opened to man will†¦ develop the resources, extend the commerce, increase the power, exalt the dignity and perpetuate the unity of our Republic†¦ Railroad companies thus made fortunes and grew in size. They gained such economic power that they started to influence state and federal governments. It is not surprising then that it was the railroad companies that started developing new managerial practices, such as selling stocks to raise the needed capital. They first started creating trusts, which were the most primitive forms of joining companies that free market’s laws of competition imposed on them. Some of these railroad entrepreneurs were the first to start a policy or buying and consolidating their weaker and smaller competitors. Other industries followed the example and started adopting these practices. Rise of Corporations The rise of the corporation U.S Steel is one of the best examples how great corporations were created in this period. One of its founders Andrew Carnegie came to the U.S. from Scotland at the age of 12. After getting experience in railroad industry and making farsighted investments he was the first to apply new railroad managerial practices in iron industry, that is, integrating his business both horizontally and vertically. After his Carnegie Steel was sold to banker J.P. Morgan, the newly created U.S. Steel company was the first corporation in the U.S. to capitalize over 1 billion dollars. Other industries followed the examples of railroads as well, and soon, a great number of small businesses competing for the market were replaced by oligopoly, an economy dominated by a few corporate giants. Thus, the downfall of small business contributed to the rise of working class. Andrew Carnegie’s best customers were railroad companies. The steel industry transformed the country finding application in building industrial machines and skyscrapers. The rise steel industry in the U.S. also marked the beginning of capital goods: the production of goods which are used in production of other goods. By 1890 the United States took the first position in the world in steel manufacture due to its cheap labor, abundance of raw materials, as well as the discovery of Bessemer process that made high quality steel production possible. In the mid 1890 the internal combustion engine and automobile were invented, creating great public demands for oil. It led John D. Rockefeller, the famous entrepreneur, to develop his Standard Oil company in the same way as Carnegie: through horizontal and vertical integration of business, and further on, to expand to other business as well, such as meat, harvest, tobacco, leather etc†¦ Technological Revolution and Industrial Revolution Industrialization generally connotes the idea of a â€Å"process of converting to a socioeconomic order in which industry is dominant.† Thus, this process leads a society through a transition of social and economic changes that are mutually conditioned. Post Civil-War industrialization brought great changes to the everyday life of an American: new transport and building methods changed the living conditions dramatically. Implementation of new technology and usage of machines that cut the production costs brought a revolution in industry that lasted until the first decade of the 19th century, and at the same time the beginning of serial production marked the start of modern capitalism. New inventions between years 1860 and 1900 were the most important factor in the United States industrialization; however, the role of entrepreneurs should not be neglected. Without their enrollment and capital many of these inventions would have probably been lost. In his book The Rise of Industrial America the author Page Smith tries to explain the technological revolution of this era: â€Å"For one thing, the entrepreneurial spirit (or, more simply, the desire to make as much money as possible), a spirit which existed from the beginning of the Republic†¦ appeared to be a passion without limits†¦ â€Å". Indeed, between years 1860 and 1890 440,000 patents were issued, but it is important to know that great historical changes are always conditioned by environment, and that everything that was accomplished in the field of science was reciprocally conditioned. The entrepreneurial spirit or greed could have also been important factors, but such a progress would not be possible without being tightly linked with adequate social and cultural factors. For example, the development of communications and transport certainly lead to the spreading of technical knowledge. It is said that â€Å"need is the mother of invention†, but in the context of American industrialization, the saying could be understood also in a sense of â€Å"a need for more profit†, since companies that made fortunes on inventions normally invested into further research and stimulated innovations. In discussion of inventions in this period it is important to mention inventions that were in the domain of telecommunications. In first years after the Civil War of great importance was electrical telegraphy perfected by Samuel F.B. Morse in 1844. The invention of telephone of 1876 by Alexander Graham Bell had significantly sped up information exchange and had truly enormous impact on both economic and industrial development. In brief period it became so popular in the U.S., that within a half century 16 million telephones were installed. Among the most important inventions that also stimulated business were the inventions of typewriter in 1867, of the adding machine in 1888, and of the cash register in 1897. Among the most eminent innovators of the period was Thomas Edison, who was particularly celebrated for perfecting the light bulb; however, the use of electricity for lightening developed slowly. Edison is also given credit for the invention of phonograph, mimeograph, dictaphone, motion picture camera and film. Of great significance was also Nikola Tesla’s work: his electric motor invention replaced steam engine in factories. Entrepreneurs of the period also perfected techniques of mass production, while electric railway and electric dynamo significantly stimulated urbanization. Numerous implements that were discovered for gas rapidly increased its demand. Conclusion Industrialization brought great changes to the United States in the period after 1865 and made America a leading world power. However, the price of it was great pollution of the environment, increased social differences between classes, the poverty and vulnerability of the newly created working class. In this early stage of the development of capitalism, the society has divided into high, middle and massive working class that worked long hours for extra profit that was accumulated into the hands of industrialists. The social gap between classes increased as the economy of many small businesses was replaced by oligopoly. The development of railroad companies that stimulated trade and its consolidating into large enterprises was followed by the rise of corporations in all other industries. Inventions followed the ideas for better quality of products and quality of life, while companies that made fortunes on inventions financed scientists and innovations. Notably, innovations reduced the demand for working power in agriculture as well, while factories in cities needed workers. Thus massive Post Civil-War industrialization and its inventions caused fast urbanization and changed the demographic image of the country. Apart of such indirect factors that changed the nation, many inventions such as telephone had a straightforward impact on the lives of Americans. The industrialization in United States, however, was not of local character: it left an enormous legacy to nowadays world and its effects are visible in every sphere of modern civilization. It came along with scientific discoveries that had a great impact to the development of global civilization as well as the social world order, influencing lives of every nation, and thus, every inhabitant of the world. Research Papers on Industrialisation in Post-Civil War AmericaPETSTEL analysis of IndiaAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 Europe19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2Influences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesTwilight of the UAWDefinition of Export QuotasThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationOpen Architechture a white paperNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This Nice

Supply Chain Management Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Supply Chain Management - Term Paper Example In addition to customer satisfaction and company success, supply chain management can also have a great influence on societal settings such as medical missions, disaster relief operations, and other emergencies and cultural revolution (University Alliance). Considering the crucial effect of supply chain management on organizational success, today even small business enterprises hire employees having abundant SCM skills and knowledge. Effective supply chain management will improve the bottom line of the business and enhance the cash flow by expediting the delivery of products. The most fascinating feature of SCM is that it plays inevitable role in meeting customer satisfaction making sure that right quantity of products is delivered to customers in a timely fashion. This paper will analyze the supply chain management of Hsuh Ta Enterprise Co., Ltd giving particular focus to the firm’s purchasing and material management and supply chain integration. Hsuh Ta Enterprise Co., Ltd is a Taiwanese plastic forming and molding company operating in the plastic industry. Although the company is in its initial phases of growth, it is known for its eco-friendly business model and a fast market growth rate. The sustainable business model assisted the company to survive the dreadful impacts of recent global recession successfully. The Hush management strongly believes that focusing particularly on the environmental notions of the society would benefit the organization to gain a set of competitive advantages over its market rivals. The company enjoys great governmental and public support on the strength of its sustainable business model. The concept of supply chain management has been well documented in the academic literature and is commonly regarded as the streamlining of a business’ supply chain activities for maximizing customer values and gaining competitive

A specific function of an element of the U.S.Department of Homeland Research Paper

A specific function of an element of the U.S.Department of Homeland Security...I want to ICE - Research Paper Example However, it seems that many had barely looked at the surface, while credits for the many accomplishments in the preservation of national security were enjoyed by renowned groups only. There is more to ICE than meets the eye. Crime has many forms, and until one is committed, authorities may not be instigated to design the appropriate laws and the organization to enforce them. The establishment of the Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) entails a long history of trial and error. From a small unit, it evolved into an all-encompassing crime-busting organization, and front-liner in the operation against terrorism. In fact, before 9/11, immigration and customs authorities were not widely recognized as an effective counterterrorism tool in the United States. ICE changed this by creating a host of new systems to better address national security threats and to detect potential terrorist activities in the United States. ICE targets the people, money, and materials that support terrorist criminal activity (Fay, 2007, p. 591) So much was the impact of the 9-11 tragedy that the Government addressed areas of â€Å"national security† before all other concerns. Intelligence planned to engage in strategies to monitor all means of communications and dissemination of information. The President made efforts to build close relationships with his counterparts abroad to extend the nation’s scope of alliance. Federal authorities created ICE to ensure that whatever the cause of the blunder was, it will not happen again. Today, although ICE is hardly ever portrayed in the big screen like the FBI and CIA, and thus is not identified by many, it is always included in the cast when national security is at risk. They perform such functions that affect millions of lives, directly and indirectly. Since then, the United States has not been subjected to anymore instance of terrorist attack, and the question lies on whether it was due to ICE’s effective performance, or

China, India and Japan all face significant challenges with regard to Essay

China, India and Japan all face significant challenges with regard to their technological capabilities. What are these challenges and how likely are they to be overcome over the following two decades - Essay Example As such, both China and India need to invest more on R&D to compete at the same level with the developed countries in the next two decades. Conversely, while Japan’s technological capabilities are more advanced compared to China and India, Japan faces a challenge because of its protectionist policies. These policies impact negatively on Japan’s cooperation with other countries in terms of sharing knowledge. In addition, the country is faced with an aging population and thus; there is need for the country to access human capital abroad. This means that, Japan has to open up to the outside world by embracing trade liberalisation (Norma & Danny 2002, p.36). This paper examines the significant challenges faced by China, India and Japan with regard to their technological capabilities. As an emerging economy, the technological capability of China requires a focus on innovations. However, it is emerging that both the state and private sector is not aggressive in terms of improving innovations. A lack of a focus on basic research is an impediment to China’s technological capabilities. Most business enterprises in China do not engage in basic research, and this leads to imitation of foreign products. The country further has a weak system for managing rights related to intellectual property. This creates a situation where piracy is rampant in china, and impacts negatively on the country’s technological capabilities (Andrew 2005, p.16). On another note, since SMEs plays a critical role in advancing innovations, China faces a challenge in the sense that, their SMEs lack adequate funds and human resources to carry out large scale innovations. While China boasts of cheap labour, this is detrimental to its technology in the sense that, this leads to the production of poor quality products that is sold cheaply in the global market. As a result of the rising costs of production

Applied International Trade Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Applied International Trade Management - Essay Example Production and distribution of goods and services are the main reason that is contributing to the growth of the port in recent times. Auckland is the largest centre for manufacturing and can be treated as a distribution hub. Trade has been considered as the engine of economic growth that drives the well-being of people in nations. This is particularly the reason for which Auckland’s economy has grown at a greater rate compared to New Zealand for the last ten years (Auckland City Government, â€Å"Driving forces in the Auckland region†). The rise in economic activity has been coupled with the rise in consumerism in the area. The high rates of employment in Auckland mainly in regions of metal production and manufacturing industries have increased the level of disposable income. This in turn, has raised the level of consumer spending by stimulating the demand for goods and services. The general increase in the demand of consumption goods in turn, fuels trade and the role of the port becomes crucial. The role of ports in supply chain management has increased in the recent times. Researchers have pointed out that, ports have played an important role in the co-ordination of information and material flows. This is because; ports play a centre of transhipment and can be considered as an important part in the supply chain. Ports can only become good logistics platform if they work in multiple directions by taking into account the interest of the sender and receiver of goods (Carbone and Martino 305-320). The Ports of Auckland Limited is constantly striving to improve its role in the supply chain management. POAL has taken a crucial role in the sharing of information, providing pre-advice for online export, providing facilities of vehicle booking system and off-wharf hubs. Adaptation of these technologies has reduced the average cargo handling time at the port thereby, enhancing the efficiency of the system. The

Robert Adam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Robert Adam - Essay Example Born in Kirkcaldy, Fife, Scotland in 1728, Adam led the neo-classical era of architecture in England and Scotland from the mid-1700's until his death in 1792. Adam rose to be one of the most influential architects in Great Britain employing the famed Neo-classical style of architecture.This achievement is reminiscent in many of his works all across the United Kingdom. After he earned fame on the completion of the remodeling of the Syon House, a Tudor-style convent situated at the outskirts of London, Adam was commissioned to build new structures and remodel existing structures which include, the Osterley Park in Middlesex and the Kenwood House, to fit the Neo-classical genre. But most importantly, Adam's works of genius can be witnessed today in the city of Edinburgh, Scotland where his designs of various structures and interior decoration continue to elicit awe and respect. Adam's stylistic influence in architecture has been massive and long lasting. However, his influence and innov ative ideas on interior design and intricate attention to details even on his tiniest of creations earned him the reputation as one of the greatest masters of interior design. He employed more flexibility and integrated aspects of classic Roman design which manifested hints and mixtures of Greek, Byzantine and Baroque creations. THE ADAMESQUE STAIR HALL ORNAMENT One of his most influential creations, the Osterley House, manifests Adam's genius and innovations in the design of interior delineating the Roman classical details on this particular work. 1The house features coffered Roman ceilings, apses, pilaster and grotesques reminiscent of the age of Antiquity. Adam's inclusion of the Etruscan dressing room gave the Osterley Park creation its most original and distinctive aspect, as Adam's utilization of this design is the finest 18th century variation of the Roman motif. Furthermore, at Kenwood House, Adam built a vaulted library, celebrated as his most intricate and beautiful creation. The vaulted library boasts of its soft blue palette balanced by white columns and hints of gilts, a creation unfamiliar in that era apparent only in that age's most intricate porcelains. Adamesque Door Surround THE ROOM The aforementioned innovative designs are typical of Adam who mixed neo-Gothic features with 'Etruscan' and 'Egyptian' motifs, considered minor features of the 'Adamesque' movement. Adam's style is unique, in that, it includes ornamentations reminiscent of the Roman motifs 2such as framed medallions, vases, urns and tripods, arabesque vine scrolls, sphinxes and gryphons. His distinct interior design also includes 3flat grotesque panels, pilasters, painted ornaments such as swags and ribbons and intricate color schemes. Adam's room arrangements, ornamental ceilings, chimneypieces and furniture characterized a 'greater unity and architectonic quality' in many of their features which are found missing or lacking in the works of his contemporaries. Although he was more famed for his architecture, his works on the interior and decoration of it, are of more lasting importance. 4The Pompeiian features and influence are evident in his decoration and setting of interiors, which give them the feeling of perfection and intricacy as Adam values ornamental balance and open spaces. THE STAIR HALL Most designers

E Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

E - Essay Example Low interest rates have several impacts on the state of the economy. When interest rates are low, savers get very little returns; hence, they are discouraged from holding money, thus, prefer to spend it. It also makes borrowing cheap meaning that individuals and firms will be encouraged to borrow more and spend on investment. In addition, the low interest rates will lead to depreciation of the currency value, as people would prefer to save in another country with better interest rates. The high spending will lead to an increase in aggregate demand, which will in turn lead to an increase in the rate of inflation. Keeping the interest rates low can be a means of stimulating economic growth. In the recent past, the global rate of economic growth has been low. By keeping the interest rates low, there will be a decrease in the value of the dollar. This will make importing more expensive, thus, encourage people to buy locally produced goods, leading to an increase in aggregate demand of domestic products that will in turn lead to an increase in output, productivity and employment. Therefore, when there is a high rate of unemployment, the Feds can keep the interest rates low, a factor that will have an eventual impact of stimulating growth of the economy. The amount of investment in bonds and treasury bills will be affected by the current and expected rate of interest. Investors will invest their money on the stocks or bonds that they expect will have the highest rate of return. If the rate of interest is expected to remain low, investors will tend to invest more as they expect aggregate demand to increase which in turn will translate to higher business earning and returns. If they expect the rate of interest to rise, they will tend to invest in short term bills. Interest rates have an effect on the price of bonds. The price of the bond is inversely related to the interest rate. As the rate of interest rises, the price of the bonds

Applied International Trade Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Applied International Trade Management - Essay Example Production and distribution of goods and services are the main reason that is contributing to the growth of the port in recent times. Auckland is the largest centre for manufacturing and can be treated as a distribution hub. Trade has been considered as the engine of economic growth that drives the well-being of people in nations. This is particularly the reason for which Auckland’s economy has grown at a greater rate compared to New Zealand for the last ten years (Auckland City Government, â€Å"Driving forces in the Auckland region†). The rise in economic activity has been coupled with the rise in consumerism in the area. The high rates of employment in Auckland mainly in regions of metal production and manufacturing industries have increased the level of disposable income. This in turn, has raised the level of consumer spending by stimulating the demand for goods and services. The general increase in the demand of consumption goods in turn, fuels trade and the role of the port becomes crucial. The role of ports in supply chain management has increased in the recent times. Researchers have pointed out that, ports have played an important role in the co-ordination of information and material flows. This is because; ports play a centre of transhipment and can be considered as an important part in the supply chain. Ports can only become good logistics platform if they work in multiple directions by taking into account the interest of the sender and receiver of goods (Carbone and Martino 305-320). The Ports of Auckland Limited is constantly striving to improve its role in the supply chain management. POAL has taken a crucial role in the sharing of information, providing pre-advice for online export, providing facilities of vehicle booking system and off-wharf hubs. Adaptation of these technologies has reduced the average cargo handling time at the port thereby, enhancing the efficiency of the system. The

E Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

E - Essay Example Low interest rates have several impacts on the state of the economy. When interest rates are low, savers get very little returns; hence, they are discouraged from holding money, thus, prefer to spend it. It also makes borrowing cheap meaning that individuals and firms will be encouraged to borrow more and spend on investment. In addition, the low interest rates will lead to depreciation of the currency value, as people would prefer to save in another country with better interest rates. The high spending will lead to an increase in aggregate demand, which will in turn lead to an increase in the rate of inflation. Keeping the interest rates low can be a means of stimulating economic growth. In the recent past, the global rate of economic growth has been low. By keeping the interest rates low, there will be a decrease in the value of the dollar. This will make importing more expensive, thus, encourage people to buy locally produced goods, leading to an increase in aggregate demand of domestic products that will in turn lead to an increase in output, productivity and employment. Therefore, when there is a high rate of unemployment, the Feds can keep the interest rates low, a factor that will have an eventual impact of stimulating growth of the economy. The amount of investment in bonds and treasury bills will be affected by the current and expected rate of interest. Investors will invest their money on the stocks or bonds that they expect will have the highest rate of return. If the rate of interest is expected to remain low, investors will tend to invest more as they expect aggregate demand to increase which in turn will translate to higher business earning and returns. If they expect the rate of interest to rise, they will tend to invest in short term bills. Interest rates have an effect on the price of bonds. The price of the bond is inversely related to the interest rate. As the rate of interest rises, the price of the bonds

Cloud Computing †Risk or Opportunity Essay Example for Free

Cloud Computing – Risk or Opportunity Essay Abstract Cloud computing is a term that refers to sources and computer systems available on demand through the network, which can provide a number of computer services integrated without being restricted local resources in order to make it easier for the user and include those resources space for data backup and synchronization self also includes processing capabilities software and scheduling of tasks and push e-mail and remote printing, and the user can control when it is connected to the network in these resources through a simple software interface simplifies and ignores a lot of detail and internal processes. Cloud computing has become increasingly popular because it offers users the illusion of having infinite computing resources, of which they can use as much as they need, without having to worry about how those resources are provided. It also provides greater scalability, availability, and reliability than users could achieve with their own resource The core property in cloud computing that held computing in the cloud; for clarity, the treatment process (and related data) is not confined to the place (places) private and unknown. Thus, this model is the antithesis of the treatment process is located in one or more of the servers are well known. Exposure model cloud of criticism and attack because of privacy advocates, for the ease of large governing the hosting companies for services cloud, and then, can impose censorship and domination, whether legal or illegal, the communication process as well as the data stored in between the user and the host company Introduction Cloud computing has become a ubiquitous term and largely discussed topic in the global information technology (IT) world. Cloud computing has changed dramatically the ways in which organizations and individuals communicate, collaborate and compute. The concept of cloud computing ensures a cost–effective transformation of utility computing principle that allows users and providers a convenient access to resources in a self-service and ‘pay as you go fashion’. Consequently, cloud computing has reduced the cost associated with system administration as well as aided in improving resource utilization and accounting. Since last few years, cloud computing has resulted in a number of positive impacts on the IT ecosystem, thereby giving rise to new markets and widely scattered new user communities (European Commission, 2012). Contextually, the concept of cloud computing is the outcome of the direct industrial needs to enhance resource utilization without intervening consumer requirements. In other words, the concept ensures the use of the available resources in more efficient manner (European Commission, 2012). The paper intends to critically examine the opportunities and the risks associated with cloud computing and draws a valid conclusion on its adoption by organizations. Cloud Computing: Definition, Models and Services Cloud computing was initially used in an academic perspective by Prof. Kenneth K Chellapa who illustrated it in 1997 at the Informs Conference in Dallas as â€Å"a computing paradigm where the boundaries of computing will be determined by economic rationale rather than technical limits† (Petri, 2010). There are various definitions of cloud computing however the most appropriate and broadly accepted definition is being provided by North America National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST). According to NIST, â€Å"Cloud Computing is a model for enabling convenient, on demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort to service provider interaction† (Petri, 2010). There are many cloud computing models for business purposes including: Public Cloud: Public cloud model is provided by vendors and can be accessed over the internet or private network. One or more data centers are used by this model which is shared by multiple customers (Weitz, 2010). Private Cloud: Private cloud model is managed and used internally by the organizations which utilizes ‘shared services model’ and makes variable usage of virtualized computing resources. The data stored in the model are managed within the organization (Weitz, 2010). Hybrid Cloud: As the name suggests, the hybrid model is the mixture of public cloud services and private cloud architecture. The model is designed to meet certain specific needs of customers (Weitz, 2010). Community Cloud: Community cloud model is used across the organizations having similar requirements and objectives. Community cloud model is established using public cloud services in order to ensure collaboration among the companies (Weitz, 2010). Cloud Computing Services Cloud computing services are provided mostly in the following ways: Software-as-a-Service (SaaS): Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) has been operational in the market since many years. Currently, businesses are more interested in shifting licensing software to subscribe services particularly on the basis of per user and per month among others (Weitz, 2010). Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS): Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS) includes development of such environment that allows developers to build software applications that can be offered as services to customers or to general users (Weitz, 2010). Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS): Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS) provides customers or users with storage, network and other various fundamental resource requirements in order to run arbitrary applications (Weitz, 2010). Literature Review According to Etro (2009), cloud computing is a recently evolved internet based technology that stores large information in servers and provides that information as services on demand to clients. Accordingly, its impact is spectacular on both consumers and companies. Furthermore, he stated that consumers can access all their documents and data from any devices such as laptops, mobile phones and tablets while the companies can rent hardware and software from the service providers and pay as they use the services like other services availed by the companies such as electricity (Etro, 2009). Petri (2010) postulates that, cloud computing is one of the most discussed IT innovations in the last few years. Hence, risk management is the most critical area which draws a serious attention. He emphasized that future is relatively uncertain when associating cloud computing with security factor. He critically points out that cloud vendors should quickly address the security and other related concerns for ensuring better customer satisfaction (Petri, 2010). According to Bein, Bein Madiraju (2010), cloud computing is a new paradigm of computing that has evolved in the recent times as an expensive way for providing storage and software. They further stressed that many companies are moving ahead with an intention to make cloud computing easy to use. They advocated that there are huge potential for consumers to exploit the cloud computing technology (Bein, Bein Madiraju, 2010). According to Gartner Inc (2012), continuous monitoring of cloud computing technologies and usual updates to the enterprises’ cloud strategies are necessary to prevent any cost related errors for the subsequent few years. It also stated that cloud computing technology will have significant impact on the level of its adoption over a period of time (Gartner Inc, 2012) According to Pokhriyal (2012), cloud computing would contribute towards increasing complexities relating to data storage and users access to applications as well as other frequently conducted processes. She also stated that risk of exposure of critical data is more with the use of cloud computing technology. She advocated that business firms may also witness security breaches and hacking that shall make the cloud storage relatively ineffective and inefficient (Pokhriyal, 2012). According to Willcocks, Venters, Whitey (2011), cloud computing technology is changing the ways of IT business services in terms of data delivering and managing. Accordingly, cloud computing has escalated the importance of delivering effective services and for this reason the IT and business services urgently need to raise the level of service competency and should focus on the availability of quality services to meet the customer expectations (Willocks, Venters, Whitley, 2011). In the words of Horwath, Chan, Leung, Pili (2012), cloud computing has the potential to bring certain drastic changes in the organizations as witnessed in case of the internet during the last decade of the 20th century. They emphasized that by applying cloud computing technology without proper care and due-diligence may result in unforeseen problems. Consequently, executives must be aware of risks and other issues of cloud computing in order to derive significant benefits out of the provided services (Horwath, Chan, Leung, Pili, 2012). According to Santos, Gummadi, Rodrigues (2012), cloud computing enables organizations to cut costs associated with resource storage, network bandwidth and other relevant data. However, they argued that concerns about the privacy, confidentiality and integrity of the data and computation can be considered to be the major deterrents for those organizations which are looking forward to embrace cloud computing (Santos, Gummadi, Rodrigues, 2012). According to Hinchcliffe (2009), cloud computing will transform IT business scenario by a large extent and it will have to balance between the risks and the benefits associated with cloud computing models. Therefore, he points out certain major risks associated with such transformations including security of organizational data that is stored in the cloud, loss of control over cloud resources and reliability factor. He also stated that the efficient use of cloud computing will enable market validation and prototyping of new approaches at much faster and relatively less expensive rate than ever before (Hinchcliffe, 2009). According to Weitz (2010), cloud computing will be playing a major role in the future of IT and shall bring in enormous opportunities for the organizations. Consequently, he stated that larger organizations will also have an opportunity for cutting the existing costs of IT infrastructure with the use of cloud computing models. However, he also highlighted the risks related with cloud computing and expressed his deep concerns relating to the security and confidentiality of certain relevant data (Weitz, 2010). Hyek (2011) in his report, ‘Cloud Computing Issues and Impacts’, postulated that, cloud computing models should comply with laws and regulations in each of its operations. The processing of data by the cloud service providers must be in conformity with governments’ requirements (Hyek, 2011). According to Curtis, Heckman, Thorp (2010), the most important factor related with the cloud computing model is the concern about the security and privacy of data while adopting cloud computing models (Curtis, Heckman, Thorp, 2010). According to the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering (2010), in its report, ‘Cloud Computing: Opportunities and Challenges for Australia’ considers the importance of government and its roles in encouraging researchers and business sectors to adopt cloud computing models. The report emphasized that government should formulate strategies that initiate business sectors to adopt cloud models for their resource and application requirements. The report precisely described the responsibility of the cloud service providers in terms of proper management of data in order to prevent any situation that may result in loss of vital data (Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering, 2010). According to Catteddu Hogben, (2009) cloud services provide expedient storage accessible by various devices along with other benefits including useful communication and instant multi-point collaboration. They also emphasized that level of risk may tend to vary significantly based on the type of cloud model. It is for this reason that customers should be aware of the probable risks associated with cloud computing models and they should strive to transfer the risks to the providers (Catteddu Hogben, 2009). Characteristics of Cloud Computing A few of the relevant characteristics of cloud computing are elaborated below: On-Demand Self Service: Cloud computing providers offer various computer services such as applications, e-mail and network without involving human interaction with various service providers engaged in certain specific services only. Currently, there are multiple organizations that provide cloud computing services based on on-demand self services such as Google, Amazon Web, Microsoft and IBM among others (Information System Audit and Control Association, Inc, 2012). Broad Network Access: Cloud services are available over the network, specifically over the internet and are accessed through certain standard mechanisms such as personal laptops, mobile phones, tablets and iPads among others (Information System Audit and Control Association, Inc, 2012). Resource Pooling: The cloud computing models of the providers are shared with various resources in order to serve multiple clients. The resources united together may consist of processing, network bandwidth, storage of data, memory, virtual machines and email service (Information System Audit and Control Association, Inc, 2012). Rapid Elasticity:The capacities of cloud services can be swiftly and elastically provisioned, in a few instances robotically as well to quickly balance out and release to scale in quickly. Furthermore, the capacities accessible for provisioning frequently emerge to be infinite and can be procured in any amount at any time (Information System Audit and Control Association, Inc, 2012). Measured Services: The resource usage of cloud computing can be measured and reported to both providers and customers related to the amount of services utilized. Hence, cloud computing service providers charge the customers for the resources that they have actually used i.e. ‘pay as you use’. Considering the fact, more the customers utilize the cloud computing services, more they have to pay and vice-versa (Information System Audit and Control Association, Inc, 2012). Multi-tenacity: Multi-tenacity is one key characteristics related to cloud computing which is being advocated by Security All iance. Multi-tenacity is related with the requirement for segmentation, ‘policy-driven enforcement’, control, service levels, billing models and isolation for the different consumer requirements (Information System Audit and Control Association, Inc, 2012). Cloud Computing: Opportunities and Risk Assessment Cloud Computing Opportunities Opportunities derived from cloud computing are related with cost reduction to increase flexibility and decrease complexity which benefits the customers in terms of higher returns on their investments. Certain vital opportunities and benefits provided by cloud computing comprise: Cost Saving: Cloud computing customers are liable to pay merely for computing services and resources that they use rather than making permanent investments on resources or leasing equipments that may or may not be utilized fully at all times. Cloud computing enables to share IT resources with multiple organizations and facilitates them to access as per their requirements which can be related as operating expenses (OPEX) and not as capital expenses (CAPEX) (Petri, 2010). Speed of Deployment: Cloud service providers can meet the needs of the organizations for computing resources quickly and efficiently than other internal informati on technology functions. The customers do not have to wait for months for crunching large data. They can simply rent resources for limited period and can avail huge benefits at considerably reduced time (Petri, 2010). Scalability and Better Alignment of Technology Resources: An organization is able to scale up as well as down its capability from a single server to multiple numbers of servers with no capital expenses through the use of cloud service models. An organization is also able to deploy additional storage capacity over the web (Petri, 2010). Decreased Efforts in Managing Technology: Owning and operating of IT functions are often costly and time consuming. However, cloud computing enables an organization to concentrate more time on its purposes and goals (Petri, 2010). Environmental Benefits: Cloud computing also results in environmental benefits. If all the organizations replace their private data centers with cloud computing, it will significantly reduce the overall power consumption and carbon emissions (Petri, 2010). Higher Value Added: Cloud computing does not only provide software functionality but it also provides the customers with relevant information and data which was traditionally supposed to be created by the customers themselves (Petri, 2010). Cloud Computing Risks Risk is an event that prevents the organizations from achieving their determined purposes and objectives. Certain risks associated with cloud computing are stated below: Disruptive Force: Facilitating innovation and cost saving aspects can itself be viewed as risk to the existing cloud computing organizations. By lowering the barriers to entry, new competitors may pose a serious threat to certain cloud computing business models (Horwath, Chan, Leung, Pili, 2012). Residing In the Same Risk Ecosystem as the Cloud Service Provider (CSP) and Other Tenants of the Cloud: Organizational reliance on third party involved in managing cloud solutions will increase legal responsibility and incident escalation among other core areas. By following the actions of CSP may impact the organizations in certain direct and indirect ways (Horwath, Chan, Leung, Pili, 2012). Lack of Transparency: A cloud computing service provider does not facilitate complete information regarding its processes and operat ions. Consequently, cloud customers have only little knowledge about the storage locations and algorithms that are implemented or used by the cloud service providers in relation to computing and controlling resources of customers’ data (Horwath, Chan, Leung, Pili, 2012). Reliability and Performance Issues: Even though efficiency of cloud computing may get disrupted due to risk events such as system failure that may occur without any early alerts to the end users. Hence, system failure may be viewed as a distinctive challenge posed to cloud computing (Horwath, Chan, Leung, Pili, 2012). Security And Compliance Concerns: Cloud computing supports various processes that may tend to evolve security and retention concerns in relation to its compliance with certain specific laws such as Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA). The cloud service providers may have no obligation to reveal such information associated with privacy of certain laws such as US Patriot Act and EU Data Protection Directives among others (Horwath, Chan, Leung, Pili, 2012). High Value Cyber Attack Targets: The over-dependence of multiple organizations on single cloud service providers may tend to create vulnerability of cyber attacks then those used by a single organization (Horwath, Chan, Leung, Pili, 2012). Risk of Data Leakage: The risk of data leakage is also more where multiple organizations share their resources through cloud environment. Consequently, cloud service providers do not provide adequate data privacy and confidentiality of resources which the organizations intend to secure from intruders (Horwath, Chan, Leung, Pili, 2012). Conclusion Cloud computing has changed dramatically the ways in which the organizations communicate, collaborate and compute. In general, cloud computing refers to delivery of scalable IT resources over the web particularly internet. An organization can purchase or rent software on need basis or according to usage which results in less investment and consumption on the part of the organization. Cloud computing facilitates the organizations to manage their IT requirements remotely, at much lowered costs. It further enables organizations to share resources in a single place or through a single cloud service provider. The organizations do not have to make heavy investments on establishment of their own IT infrastructure as cloud computing models provide organizations with established database for fulfillment of their IT demand. Moreover, organizations and users are charged or billed on the basis of their resource consumption. Despite having numerous benefits of adopting cloud computing models, there also exist certain risk factors which restrict the scope of cloud computing. Security and privacy are the prime issues restricting the adoption of cloud computing. Since multiple organizations will be consolidated on single cloud computing, there exists more vulnerability of data hacking. Consequently, cloud computing service providers do not guarantee the adequate safety for data losses and leakages which at times deters organizations from adopting cloud computing solutions. Nonetheless, if organizations cautiously consider the risk factors associated with cloud computing related solutions then these risk events can be overcome efficiently. Considering this aspect, it can be stated that organizations should adopt cloud computing solutions. By adopting cloud computing solutions, they can avail numerous opportunities that shall help them to grow and sustain their business profitably. References Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering. (2010). The roles of government in cloud computing. Cloud computing: opportunities and challenges for Australia, pp. 13-19. Bein, D., Bein, W. Madiraju, P. (2010). Web applications and cloud computing. The impact of cloud computing on web 2.0, pp. 1-6. Curtis, W. B., Heckman, C. Thorp, A. (2010). Security and Privacy Considerations. Cloud computing: e-discovery issues and other risk, pp. 1-5. Catteddu, D. Hogben, G. (2009). Top security risks. Cloud Computing: Benefits, Risks And Recommendations For Information Security Cloud Computing, pp. 2-125. Etro, F. (2009). Features and implications of cloud computing. The economic impact of cloud computing on business creation, employment and output in Europe, pp. 2-33. European Commission. (2012). Introduction background. Advances in clouds, pp. 1-7. Gartner Inc. (2012). Gartner outlines five cloud computing trends that will affect cloud strategy through 2015. Retrieved from http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1971515 Horwath, C., Chan, W., Leung, E. Pili, H. (2012). COSO enterprise risk management for cloud computing. Enterprise Risk Management For Cloud Computing, pp. 1-20. Hyek, P. (2011). Security and privacy. Cloud computing issues and impacts, pp. 12-46. Hinchcliffe, D. (2009). Eight ways that cloud computing will change business. Retrieved from http://www.majorcities.org/generaldocuments/pdf/zdnet_eight_ways_that_cloud_computing_will_change_business.pdf Information System Audit and Control Association, Inc, (2012). Essential characteristics of Cloud Computing. Retrieved from http://www.isaca.org/Groups/Professional-English/cloud-computing/GroupDocuments/Essential%20characteristics%20of%20Cloud%20Computing.pdf Pokhriyal, R. (2012). Cloud computing myths explained: part 1. Retrieved from http://www.cloudtweaks.com/2012/10/cloud-computing-myths-explained-part-1/ Petri, G. (2010). Risks of cloud computing. Shedding light on cloud computing, pp. 25-30. Santos, N., Gummadi, K. P. Rodrigues, R. (2012). Towards trusted cloud computing. Retrieved from http://www.mpi-sws.org/~gummadi/papers/trusted_cloud.pdf Willcocks, L., Venters, W. Whitley, E. A. (2011). Clear view of the cloud: The business impact of cloud computing. Cloud computing, (1). Weitz, C. (2010). Barriers of cloud computing. A Balancing Act What Cloud Computing Means For Business, And How To Capitalize On It, pp. 1-9.

Social And Cultural Impacts On The Environment Tourism Essay

Social And Cultural Impacts On The Environment Tourism Essay The Tourism Industry is regarded as one of the most important and fastest growing industry around the world. Travel has been of great interest to people since the beginning of the civilization. Recently, it has been noted that there has been an increase in tourists arrivals, especially in small island states. According to UNWTO, tourism will continue to grow in 2011. Tourism sector has suffered from the global financial crisis in 2008 and 2009, but thanks to the improved economic conditions worldwide, international tourism has been able to recover from the decline brought in the financial crisis. (United Nations, 2010). The travel and tourism industry is one of the largest and most dynamic industries in the world and this industry is expected to generate about 9% of global GDP and provide for more than 235 million jobs representing 8 % of global employment (Merco Press, 2010).The WTO has set up the long-term forecast of the assessment of the development of tourism up to the first 20 years of the new millennium known as the Tourism 2020 vision.UNWTOs Tourism 2020 vision predicts that international arrivals are expected to reach over 1.56 billion by the year 2020. Of these worldwide arrivals in 2020, 1.2 will be intraregional and 0.4 will be long-haul travelers. The top three receiving regions will be Europe with 717 million tourists, East Asia and the Pacific around 397 million and the Americas with 282 million, followed by the Africa, Middle East and South Asia (UNWTO, 2011). As such, the tourist will continue to be a flourishing industry in the coming years. Tourism has been described as the smokeless industry that can bring that can bring maximum benefit to a community as compared to other economic activities. Tourism has been viewed as a means of improving a community as a better place to live and generating economic benefits. 2.1 Tourism impacts There are many academic researchers that have been done on the impacts of tourism. Many local communities believe that tourism can stimulate change in social, cultural, environmental and economic dimensions where tourism activities have had a close connection with the local communities (Beeton, 2006;Richards Hall, 2000).It is important to understand and assess tourism impacts so as to maintain sustainability and the long-term success of the tourism industry (Diedrich Garcia-Buades, 2008). Tourism is also regarded to as the worlds largest industry and regarded as a means of achieving community development (Sharpley, 2002). As such, it becomes imperative to understand tourism impacts towards the community. Below is a diagram illustrating tourism impacts on the community. Perceived Negative Impacts of Tourism Personal Benefit from Tourism Resident Characteristics Support for Additional Tourism Community Tourism Dependence Perceived Positive Impacts of Tourism Support for Tourism Planning Source: Adapted from Perdue, Long and Allen 1990, p.589 In the twenty-first century, researchers on tourism points out a range of both positive and negative impacts on the host community as a result of tourism development. (Fredline and Faulkner, 2000; Upchurch and Teivane, 2000). Several studies have been conducted that explain the impacts of tourism on the environment, economy, society and culture. Researches done on the impacts of tourism on the society are wide and varied. For example, as Ryan (1991) states that the greatest impacts of tourism will occur when there is a greater gap between the culture and income level of both host and tourist. Locals perceptions towards the tourism impacts can vary significantly. According to Sharma (2004), if residents have more positive attititudes towards tourism impacts, tourism development will be more successful in a community. If residents benefit from tourism development they support additional tourism planning and development in a community. By understanding the residents perceptions, can help to access support for continued tourism development through community capacity building. Gursoy Rutherford (2004) outlines that tourism developers need to consider the perceptions and attitudes of residents before investing in scarce resources. In addition, understanding of residents perceptions towards tourism impacts can also help in identifying the types of tourism which have the potential for building community capacity (Moscardo, 2008, p.86). On the other hand, various studies show that people who have an economic benefit from tourism perceive more positive impact from it (Chon, 2000). Economic impacts In the beginning, tourism was encouraged because of its economic impacts. It is highly accepted that tourism provides economic benefits to the community. The economic impacts of tourism are the most widely researched impacts of tourism on community (Mason, 2003).Economic impacts are easier to research in a local community because it is small and generally it is more accessible. Moreover, tourism can have positive benefits on local economies and a visible impact on national GDP growth which can be an essential component for community development and poverty reduction. (Ashe, 2005). For instance, tourism creates employment for locals, investment opportunities, business opportunities, tax revenues for government and it also help small and medium enterprises for countries, regions and communities to expand (Ryan ,1998; Choi Sirakaya, 2005; Dyer,2007) but on the other hand tourism can have negative economic impacts on the society such as : too much dependency on foreign capital, inflatio n , leakages and a low education trap for locals (Giannoni Maupertus, 2007). Yet, more important is the benefits spread to the residents of local communities (Scheyvens, 2001).The economic impacts of tourism are therefore, generally perceived positively by the residents (Tatoglu et al; 2000).For the development of tourism to occur, environment, societies and cultures at the destination has paid a heavy price. The main concern is not only the development but to tackle the challenges posed by the development (Chaudhary, 2007). Social and cultural impacts According to law (1993,pp.135-164), culture and society are in a state of constant change because of many factors, notably the rapid progress in communications and social interactions that can extend rapidly over vast distances. Social impacts refer to changes in the lives of people who live in destination communities and these impacts are mostly associated with residents and tourists. On the hand, cultural impacts refer to changes in the arts, artifacts, customs, rituals and architecture of a people and are longer term changes resulting from tourism development than other types of development. Social and cultural impacts refer to changes to residents everyday experiences as well as to their values, way of life and intellectual and artistic products. Social and cultural impacts are strongly interrelated and not limited only to the host area population (Glasson, 1995, p.34).In many destinations, the nature and traditional meanings of culture may be substantially changed when culture i s redefined as market share (Earrington and Gewertz, 1996). Because of this, a host community may face cultural problems of the commercialization of culture, religion and the arts together with the misuse of indigeneous culture as attractions and be forced to adopt cultural habits of the tourists, such as their language, dress and manner to satisfy visitors (Cohen, 1979).Another downside of tourism development is seen in many parts of the world where tourism developments threaten the displacement of local people. On the other hand, Glasson (1995, p.35-36) argues that along with the downside of development, there are cultural benefits and intercultural communication between hosts and visitors that increase good understanding between them. Without tourists, local culture and tradition may have been lost completely, as there is no market for traditional products. Environmental impacts Environmental impacts occur as a result of tourism development in many regions of the world as communities struggle to find an optimal balance between optimal and conservation. Recently,it has been found that tourism activities are highly dependent on the environment. Research has shown the impacts that tourism has on natural resources (Green, Hunter and Moore, 2000).Most of the researchers have been conducted on natural or semi-natural areas, with very little research done on urban settings (Green, 1990).Specific sites have been examined such as Alpine areas (Goodman, 1987;Rodriguez, 1987), islands (Wilkinson, 1989), coastal areas (Martinez-Taberner, Moya and Forteza, 1990). In addition, most research has been focused around the negative impacts that tourism has on natural resources after the damage has taken place.As such, tourism is always blamed to be responsible for resource degradation (Farell and McLellan, 1987).On the other hand, there are also positive impacts of tourism ass ociated with the environment. 2.2 The Environmental Impacts of Tourism The environment is probably one of the most important contributors to the desirability and attractiveness of a destination. Scenic sites, amenable climates and unique landscape features have an important influence in tourism development and the spatial distribution of tourism movement. (Coccossis and Nijkamp, 1995, p.4) Tourism and the environment are interrelated as tourism is dependent on natural resources to survive. There are studies that have identified both the positive and negative environmental impacts of tourism (Burns Holden, 1995; Puckzo Ratz, 2000). Table 1 can better illustrate both the positive and negative impacts of tourism in a destination area. Table 1 Balance sheet of environmental impacts of tourism Area of effect Negative impacts Positive impacts Biodiversity Disruption of breeding/feeding patterns Killing of animals for leisure (hunting) or to supply souvenir trade. Loss of habitats and change in species composition Destruction of vegetation Encouragement to conserve animals as attractions. Establishment of protected or conserved areas to meet tourist demands Erosion and physical damage Soil erosion Damage to sites through trampling Overloading of key infrastructure (e.g. water supply networks) Tourism revenue to finance ground repair and site restoration Improvement to infrastructure prompted by tourist demand Pollution Water pollution through sewage or fuel spillage and rubbish from pleasure boats Air pollution (e.g. vehicle emissions) Noise pollution (e.g. from vehicles or tourist attractions: bars, discos, etc.) Littering Cleaning programmes to protect the attractiveness of location to tourists Resource base Depletion of ground and surface water Diversion of water supply to meet tourist needs (e.g. golf courses or pools) Depletion of local fuel sources Depletion of local building-material sources Development of new/improved sources of supply Visual/structural change Land transfers to tourism (e.g. from farming) Detrimental visual impact on natural and non-natural landscapes through tourism development Introduction of new architectural styles Changes in (urban) functions Physical expansion of built-up areas Regeneration and/or modernisation of built environment Reuse of disused buildings Source: Adapted from Hunter and Green (1990) For the negative impacts of tourism, Puckzo and Ratz (2000) observed that tourism development that are not well-planned often leads to increased stress on destinations and in negative changes in the destinations physical and socio cultural attributes. According to Wood (1991), it is possible to identify broad categories of impacts that may affect all destinations. Water pollution is believed to be one of the environmental impacts caused by tourism. It can affect surfaces such as rivers, lakes and oceans. Chemical and oils spills from boats can cause devastating water pollution that kills water birds, shellfish and other wildlife. Tourists can also contribute to the degradation of the marine life also through:snorkelling,scuba diving and sport fishing can threaten fisheries and other marine resources. For example, tourism is known to have contributed to inappropriate development around Lake Tahoe in the United States (Iverson, Sheppard Strain, 1993) and at Pattaya in Thailand (Mieczk owski, 1995); oil pollution in water at King George island (Harris, 1991); habitat loss, fragmentation and erosion in Nepal (Croall, 1995); destruction of wildlife at Zakynthos in Greece (Prunier, Sweeney Gree, 1993); disturbance of animals and loss of area for production in Kenya (Sindiga Kannunah, 1999). Apart from the consumption of large amounts of natural resources, the tourism industry also produces considerable waste and pollution. In fact, disposal of liquid and solid waste generated by the tourism industry has posed a problem for many developing countries and some countries are incapable of treating these waste materials. This has led to reducing the availability of natural resources such as fresh water. For example, in Kerala state the tourist industry collapses after two decades of fast growth because there was inadequate disposal of solid waste. Tourists also contribute to land pollution from solid waste and the contamination of marine waters and coastal areas from pollution generated by marinas, hotels and cruise ships. Moreover, the tourist industry uses high level of energy consumption in hotels including: air-conditioning, heating and cooking as well as transportation which can cause air pollution in many host countries. Air and noise pollution as well congestions are likely to result from tourist development. Tourism activities which are not properly controlled can also cause severe disruption of wildlife habitats and increased pressure on endangered species. For example, in Africas national parks tourists vehicles approach wild animals and very often distract them from hunting and breeding, in the carribean sea there are even boat crews that pursue whales and dolphins and as such discourage petting which tends to disturb the animals feeding and behaviour (Masny,2001). In addition, tourism also leads to the clearance of native vegetation for the development of new facilities, new infrastructure and tourist development. There is an increase in demand for fuelwood and even forest fires. This results not only in the destruction of local habitats and ecosystems but also in the processes of erosion and landslide. Fragile areas such as: forests, wet lands and mangroves are also threatened by tourism activities. On the other side, tourism contributes to the positive benefits of the environment. Doswell (1997) argues that tourism lays emphasis to conserve and protect the environment. Tourism also draws attention to subjects regarding biodiversity, endangered species and human impacts on the environment. Tourism is also used as a means to preserve natural areas rather than to develop them for alternative uses such as: agriculture, forestry and mining (Master, 1998). Tourism can contribute to the conservation of sensitive areas and habitat. For example, in Ghana tourism has helped in maintaining the natural reserves. Tourists can help towards environmental protection, conservation and biological diversity and sustainable use of natural resources. In this way, natural areas become valuable and this can lead to creation of national parks and wildlife parks.Revenue received from park-entrance fees can be allocated to pay for the protection and management of sensitive areas. On the hand, in some pl aces government collect money from tourists in indirect ways. For example: user tax, sales or recreation of rental equipment and license fees for hunting and fishing can provide government with the proper fund needed to manage natural resources and to finance infrastructure. Tourism encourages cleaning programmes , and this reduces the damaging Another change that can affect tourism is climate change. Climate impact is considered as the consequences of climate change on natural and human systems (IPCC, 2001). Climate impacts can be for example: the primary productivity of an ecosystem, snow cover depth. For example, a Bigano (2006) stimulates the effects of development and climate change on tourism. Climate change could negatively affect countries and regions that depend heavily on tourism. 2.3 Residents perceptions towards tourism For the long-term success of the tourism industry, it is imperative to understand and assess residents attitudes towards the impact of tourism development (Ap,1992; Ritchie and Inkari, 2006). Sustainable tourism development can be achieved normally when all stakeholders are involved in the process (Bryd, 2007). Sustainable tourism believes that the community is the focal point of tourism and planning process (Choi and Sirakaya, 2005).In addition, investigating the residents perceptions towards tourism is important because it influence their behaviour towards tourism (Andriotis and Vaughan, 2003). Studies show that the perceptions of residents towards tourism differ toward tourism development. Sustainable tourism development largely depends on the hosts acceptability of tourists and tourism-related programs, offerings and activities by locals (Musa, Hall, and Higham 2004). The active support of the local population is required for tourism development to occur in a community. One indic ator that affects tourism development in a destination is the host attitude (Lepp, 2007). In a destination area, the attitudes of the tourists and residents are taken into account. Another factor that is likely to influence the negative and positive impacts of tourists destination is residents attachment to community. Some researchers, Canan and Hennessy (1989) states that the longer the residents live in a community, the more negative they are towards tourism development. The lengths of residency of locals have a direct impact on tourism development. There are several studies that have been conducted to explain the residents perceptions towards tourism impacts and how far residents support tourism development in a community. Theories such as the attribution theory (Pearce, 1989); dependency theory (Preister, 2008), the social representation theory (Andriotis Vaughan, 2003), Butlers (1980) tourist area life cycle, Doxeys Irridex model, the intrinsic and extrinsic framework (Faulkner Tideswell, 1997) and the social exchange theory (SET) (Ap, 1982) have been developed in an attempt to better understand the host perceptions towards tourism. However, it is the SET that have received the greatest attention by scholars attempting to study residents attitudes towards tourism and their support towards tourism development. (Gursoy Rutherford, 2004; Sirakaya, Teye , Sonmez, 2002). However there are also other popular theories such as:Butlers Area Life Cycle (1980, Doxeys Irritation Index, the extrinsic/intrinsic model (Faulkner and Tideswell 1997) which describe the host-tourist relation. 2.3.1Social Exchange Theory In a tourism context, social exchange theory would mean an exchange of resources between the tourists and the host population where each of the supply each other with valued resources (Ap, 1992, p.668). SET implies that residents who gain benefits from the tourism industry are likely to perceive the industry as positive and thus support tourist industry, while those who perceive themselves incurring costs because of tourism would display negative attitudes towards tourism thereby opposing such development. The SET theory is the most common type of theory used to assess tourism impacts in a particular destination. Social exchange theory firmly believes that a need exists to measure the level of active participation of residents in the planning and development process associated with tourism development (Wang Pister, 2008). In the tourism literature, several studies have been conducted and which explained the theory of residents perceptions and assessments of the costs and benefits of tourism and their support for tourism development. In simpler words, social exchange theory supports that residents calculate the costs and benefits of tourism development, and their effort for tourism development (Ap, 1992; Yoon 2001). As such residents become aware of the positive and negative impacts of tourism and can decide whether to support or not to support tourism development. Figure1: Factors affecting residents attitudes towards tourists EXTRINSIC DIMENSION INTRINSIC DIMENSION Period of Residence Mature State of Development Early Stage of Development Long Term Recent Arrival High Tourist Ratio Adapted Non- adapteddd Employment Lifestyle Choice Low Tourist Ratio Perception of Tourism + International Tourism Orientation Domestic Tourism Orientation No Yes Non-Tourism Zone Tourism Zone High Seasonality Low Seasonality Residential Proximity Involvement Source: Faulkner and Tideswell (1997) 2.3.2 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Model Numerous studies have identified the factors that affect residents perceptions .Such factors have been used in the tourism literature to describe tourism impacts (Jurowski Gursoy, 2004). These are intrinsic and extrinsic variables (Faulkner Tideswell, 1997, Fredline Faulkner, 2000, p.765). The intrinsic variables refer to the characteristics of the host community that affect the impacts of tourism with the host community (Faulkner Tideswell, 1997, p.6) and includes factors such as:employment, length of residence, proximity to tourist zones and involvement within the tourism industry. Length of residency affect tourism development in a community, native born of the community have been found to have more negative perception of tourism development because they are attached to that place (Madrigal, 1995). On the other hand, Bisle and Hoy (1980) found a positive relationship between distance of residence from the tourist zone and perceptions. As regards to community attachment, studie s showed that the longer a host has been a resident in the area; as such they become less attached to tourism (Weaver, 2001). Residents who are dependent and involved in the tourism sector are more likely to have positive attitudes towards tourism (Linderb, 1997). The intrinsic variable shows that the host community is not homogeneous but rather heterogeneous meaning that the perceptions of tourism differ among the residents (Andriotis Vaughan, 2003; Faulkner Tideswell, 1997; Fredline Faulkner, 2000). The extrinsic factors are the characteristics of a location with respect to its role as a tourist destination including the nature and stage of tourist activity and the types of tourists involved (Faulkner Tideswell, 1997, p.6).The extrinsic factors that are likely to influence host attitudes towards tourism is the stage of tourism development occurring in a destination (Andriotis Vaughan, 2003) as argued by Butler (1980) and Doxey (1975). The extrinsic factors are:seasonality, type of tourists, particular stage of development, the tourist guest-ratio (Doxey, 1973; butler, 1980; Ap, 1983).Seasonality affect a destination, during peak seasons there is high flow of tourists resulting in economic inflation, traffic congestion and this affect the residents way of lives on the other hand, residents who are dependent on tourism are likely to tolerate these disruptive conditions. (Rothman, 1978; Beliste, 1980; Sheldon, 1984).The type of tourists is another factor that affects residents pe rceptions of tourism. Some tourists are independent travellers while others depend on locals, they try adjust with locals they accept the hosts local conditions (Amir, 1985; Page 2003). In understanding residents perceptions towards tourism, the stage of development is considered among the most important factors. To better illustrate this issue, it was important to investigate Butlers Tourism Destination Lifecycle Model. 2.3.3 Butlers Area Life Cycle Another model in regard to the host-tourist destination is Butlers Area Lifecycle Model. Although that this model dates three decades, it is still academically recognized. Butler (1980) believes that tourist areas evolve and change over time. According to this evolution, the stages that tourist areas experience are: exploration, involvement, development, consolidation, stagnation, decline or rejuvenation. Using a life-cycle model, Butler describes the resident and tourist involvement in destination area. Unlike products, destinations have a lifecycle too. Figure 2 illustrates the lifecycle of a destination. ] Figure 2 Hypothetical Evolution of a Tourist Area (Adapted from Miller and Gallucci, 2004) Using a life-cycle model, Butler describes the resident and tourist involvement in destination area. Unlike products, destinations have a lifecycle too. Moreover, Butler has also explained why tourism leads to unsustainability. By using the example of the life-cycle model, he describes how a small group of tourists explore a natural attraction by involving local residents and making subsequent development of the area. With time, the number of tourists grows, eventually leading to mass tourism. And if the tourism products are not rejuvenated, stagnation occurs at the destination and there is a fall through over-consumption of tourism products which is beyond the carrying capacity of the destination. (including adverse effects on the environment)Butler also focuses that if there is no proper management and control, environment degradation is inevitable once carrying capacity has been reached and then exceeded making mass tourism unsustainable. As noted by Jamison (1999), at the stagnat ion stage, locals have begun to express some discontent with tourism and its effects. When a destination develops, unmet residents expectations and other negative impacts of development are also likely to result in changes and attitudes towards the industry. (Teye, Sonmez and Sirakaya , 2002). The TALC S-shaped curve has also been used to describe the host-guest dichotomy- from the excitement of the potential of tourism through to resentment of tourists, resulting from exceeding local social carrying capacity. However, certain limitations have been found in Butlers model. It has been pointed out that the model assumes a degree of homogeneity of community reactions (Mason and Cheyne, 2000), but Butler denies by saying a consistent evolution of tourist area can be conceptualized.Tosun (2002) suggests that this model applies to specific areas and not all areasbecause the cycle varies from one tourist area to another. 2.3.4 Doxeys Irritation Index Associated with Butlers life cycle theory is Doxeys Irritation Index or Irridex which describes the resident-tourist interaction and attitude. This model explains host community reaction to tourism development in a specific area. The model outlines that negative impacts of tourism development might make residents feel irritated as with time host and tourists become incompatible with each other. The model has four stages which vary from euphoria, apathy, annoyance and to antagonism. Although Doxeys (1975) irridex is regarded as one of the most influential theory has been starting from Euphoria to Antagonism, where the resident irritation increases through the stages 1 to 4. (1=low irritation,4=high level of irritation). One limitation of this theory and that of Butler also, is the assumption a community is heterogeneous. The study implies that is the whole community that becomes hostile to tourism, but very often different sections of the community have different reactions. It can be concluded that the Doxey Irritation Index is simple but it does indicate a factor in tourism development and by these social changes some residents will develop antagonistic attitudes towards tourism. 2.4 Residents perceptions towards tourism environmental impacts The environment is one of the main area in which residents assess the potential impacts of tourism before they decide to embrace or reject it. According to Kuvan and Akan (2005, p.703) residents are more sensitive and concerned for problems related to the environment than the other negative impacts of tourism. Following this, Liu, Sheldon, and Var (1987) reported that residents have high ratings for environmental impacts. According to Mieczkowski (1995, p.8) defines the natural environment as a combination of non-living things, that is, abiotic, physical components together with biological resources or the biosphere including flora and fauna. Kuvan and Akan (2005) describes scholars interests in investigating into community attitudes towards tourism impact on the natural environment at a time when ecological problems such as: pollution, depletion of natural resources and deforestation are increasing. This means that mountaineous areas, savannahs, wetlands, deserts, islands and the a rtic have biophysical characteristics that cause damage to the natural environment. These fragile areas when disturbed, normally have relatively slow rates of recovery (Harrison Price, 1996). The focus on environmental impacts emerged from residents perceived impacts of the environmental impacts and other tourism impacts such as economic and social impacts of tourism has lagged behind. (Kuvan Akan, 2005).Moreover, there is a lack of information on residents perceived environmental impacts of tourism in developing countries (Kuvan Akan , 2005; Madrgal, 1993). It is an agreed fact that tourism is believed to have a far more visible effect in rural areas and developing contries than urban areas and perhaps tourism has a greater effect on rural residents (Madrigal, 1993, p.337), studies related to residents perceptions of the environment has focused more on destinations, communities and regions in developed countries rather than on developing countries. Apart from this, Schluter and Var (1988) observed that there are some issues that are special to developing countries. Furthermore, a proper analysis of the residents perceived environmental impacts of tourism could help pla nners and tourism practitioners to identify real concerns and also to develop appropriate policies and actions. 2.5 Tourism development in Mauritius Mauritius was made first, and then heaven was copied from it (Mark Twain). Mauritius is among the top 20 beautiful islands of the world .Tourism is an important contributor to economic growth in Small Island developing States like Mauritius. The World Bank has mentioned Mauritius as an example for southern Africa of an economy that has attained remarkable success in its economic development (World Bank, 1992; Hwedi, 2001). This success as mentioned cannot be escaped from tourism development, given Mauritius as the choice of destination for European visitors (Prayag, 2009; Prayag Ryan, 2010).Mauritiuss tourism industry success can be measured by the fact that it makes the highest gross domestic product contribution (30 per cent) and receives the second highest yearly total budget allocation(16.1 per cent) of countries in